Operative Technique in Plastic Surgery – Kevin C.Chung

at wirst, 1758
surgical management, 1755
approach, 1755, 1756f
patient positioning, 1755
preoperative planning, 1755
ulnar nerve block
neurovascular bundle anatomy, 1754
at wirst, 1758, 1758f
wide-awake local anesthesia no tourniquet, 1754
definition, 1754
trigger finger release, 1758
Aneurysmal bone cyst, 2423
Angiography
peroneal nerve injury, 2411
posterior interosseous artery flap, 2127
ulnar artery perforator flap, 2121
Angiosarcoma, 2421
Angle fractures, open treatment of, 911–912, 911f–912f
Angle occlusal classification, 697–698
Angle’s classification, 592, 592f–593f
Animation deformity, 373
Ankle
bone tumors of
anatomy, 2342
benign bone tumor of the talus, 2343, 2343f
complications, 2348
definition, 2342
differential diagnosis, 2342
imaging, 2342
malignant bone tumors, 2343–2347, 2344f, 2346f, 2347f
merits and demerits, 2343b
nonoperative management, 2342
outcomes, 2348

patient history, 2342
physical findings, 2342
postoperative care, 2347–2348
primary, 2342
surgery, 2342
surgical management, 2342
soft tissue infections, debridement of, 2351, 2351f
anatomy, 2349–2350, 2349f
complications, 2351
definition, 2349
differential diagnosis, 2350
imaging, 2350
merits and demerits, 2351
nonoperative management, 2350
pathogenesis, 2350
patient history and physical findings, 2350
postoperative care, 2351
supine position, 2350
surgical management, 2350
Ankle amputation, 2546
Ankle block
anatomy, 2322
complications, 2325
deep peroneal nerve, 2323, 2323f
definition, 2322
general considerations, 2322
materials, 2322
patient positioning and preparation, 2322, 2322f
saphenous nerve, 2324, 2324f
superficial peroneal nerve, 2323, 2324f
sural nerve, 2324, 2324f
tibial nerve, 2323, 2323f
Ankle hematoma, 2325

Ankle reconstruction with free flap
anatomy, 2392, 2393f
anterolateral thigh, 2396
complications, 2398
definition, 2392
gracilis, 2397
imaging, 2392
latissimus dorsi, 2397–2398
merits and demerits, 2398b
non operative management, 2392
outcomes, 2398, 2398f
pathogenesis, 2392, 2393f
patient history, 2392
physical findings, 2392
postoperative care, 2398
rectus abdominis, 2397
surgical management, 2392–2395
approach, 2395
patient positioning, 2395
preoperative planning, 2394–2395, 2394f
vastus lateralis, 2392–2395, 2396f
Ankle swelling, 2411
Ankle-brachial index (ABI), 2365
Ankle-foot orthotic (AFO), 1028
Ankyloglossia, 2691
Anophthalmia
anatomy, 555, 556f
complications, 560
definition, 555
differential diagnosis, 557
expander inflation and closure, 559
exposure and orbitotomy, 558, 559f
imaging studies, 556–557, 557f

merits and demerits, 558b
natural history, 555
nonoperative management, 557
orbital tissue expander and microport placement, 559, 559f
outcomes, 560
pathogenesis, 555
patient history and physical findings, 556, 557f
postoperative care, 560
surgical management
approach, 558–560
patient positioning, 558
preoperative planning, 558, 558f
Anophthalmic orbit. See Microphthalmia
Anophthalmos, 2877
ANS (anterior nasal spine), 328
Antegrade masseter-to-facial nerve transfer, with distal, selective,
facial nerve branch transection, 2928–2929, 2929f
Antegrade posterior interosseous artery flap, 2132
Anterior bullectomy, 805f
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), 2465
Anterior ethmoidectomy, 804, 805f
Anterior hairline approach, 84–85, 84f, 85f
Anterior hairline brow lift, 74
Anterior interosseous nerve (AIN), ulnar nerve palsy
anatomy, 2043, 2043f–2044f
complications, 2047
definition, 2043
differential diagnosis, 2044
imaging, 2044
internal topography, 2043, 2043f–2044f
merits and demerits, 2047
outcomes, 2047
patient history and physical findings, 2044

postoperative care, 2047
proximal exposure, 2045, 2045f
surgical management
approach, 2045, 2045f
patient positioning, 2045
preoperative planning, 2045
Anterior knee, 2486
Anterior lamella of skin, 1089
Anterior limb, of medial canthal tendon, 831
Anterior maxillary osteotomy, 574, 576f
Anterior nasal spine (ANS), 328
Anterior platysmaplasty and myotomy, 248, 248f–249f
Anterior sagittal transrectal approach (ASTRA), 3069–3070
Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS), 1574, 1619, 1621
Anterior tibial artery, 2338, 2395, 2400, 2420, 2423
Anterior tibial artery exposure, 2404
Anterior tibial-dorsalis pedis artery, 2378–2379, 2378f–2382f
Anterior vault reconstruction, 550, 550f
Anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap, 1116, 2383, 2396, 2440, 2487–2488,
2518
anatomy, 2144, 2144f
complication, 989, 2146
definition, 2144
design and identification of perforator, 2145, 2145f
donor-site closure, 2146
fasciocutaneous flap, 1221, 1225–1226, 1225f–1226f
flap harvest, 1204, 1204f
FOM
disadvantages, 1211
history, 1211
graft sources, 986b
harvest, 2145, 2145f
lateral femoral cutaneous nerve, 1204, 1204f

lateral mandible defect, 1048
merits and demerits, 2146b
myocutaneous flap, 2488
outcomes, 2146
patient history and physical findings, 2144
perforator flap, 1215
pharyngeal reconstruction, 1230
pharyngoesophageal reconstruction
anatomy, 1236
complications, 1241
definition, 1236
donor-site closure, 1240
flap harvest, 1237–1240, 1238f
imaging studies, 1237
merits and demerits, 1237b
neck skin reconstruction, 1239–1240
outcomes, 1241
partial vs. circumferential defects, 1239, 1239f
patient history and physical findings, 1236–1237
postoperative care, 1241
surgical management, 1237
postoperative care, 2146
with radial forearm free flap, 1074
specific donor-site dissections, 986
surgical management
approach, 2144
patient positioning, 2144
preoperative planning, 2144
thinning, 2146
Antia-Buch chondrocutaneous advancement techniques, 1133
Antia-Buch flaps
anatomy, 1129
“classic” helix-only defect, 1130, 1130f

complications, 1132
definition, 1129
helical-scaphal defect, 1131, 1131f
helical-scaphal-antihelix defect, 1131, 1131f
imaging, 1129
merits and demerits, 1130b
modifications, 1130
nonoperative management, 1129
outcomes, 1132
patient history and physical exam, 1129
postoperative care, 1132
superior and inferior incisions, 1130
surgical management, 1129
approach, 1129
patient positioning, 1129
preoperative planning, 1129
V-Y advancement flap, 1130, 1130f, 1131f
Antibiotic therapy, 2336, 2471
bone tumors of knee, 2464
femoral bone debridement, 2509
knee, bony and soft tissue debridement, 2466
osteomyelitis, 2353
Anticoagulation, 988
Antoni type B schwannoma, 2299
AP brevis. See Abductor pollicis (AP) brevis
APB tendon transfer, 2033f, 2036–2037
Apert syndrome, 445, 465f
Apgar score
Apnea hypopnea index (AHI), 636
Aponeurotic ptosis, 2850
Aquaphor, 209
Aquaplast splint, 863, 863f
ARCA (anterior radial collateral arteries), 2134–2135, 2134f

Arcade of Struthers, 1992, 1992f
Arch bar, 959, 960f
maxillomandibular fixation, of mandible fractures, 904, 904f
Arcus marginalis, 144, 152, 163, 1084, 1085f
fat grafting for periorbital rejuvenation, 166, 167f
Argon beam coagulation, 2343
Army-Navy retractor, 1449
Arnica montana, 203
Arterial blood supply
craniopagus twins, 523, 523f
of ear, 1129
laterally or medially based cervicofacial flap, 1103, 1103f–1104f
of nose, 1146
SCAIF flap, 1249
skin grafts, 1122, 1122f
Arteriography, vascular reconstruction of lower extremity, foot, and
ankle, 2400
Arteriovenous malformations (AVM), 2275
Artery repair, 2152, 2152f
Arthritis
distal radioulnar joint, Darrach procedure for, 1969, 1970f
scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse, 1957
scapholunate advanced collapse, 1957
scaphotrapeziotrapezoid joint, 1957
thumb carpometacarpal joint, 1956
thumb trapeziometacarpal joint (see Trapeziometacarpal (TMC)
joint, thumb)
Arthrodesis
distal interphalangeal joints of fingers, 1959, 1959f
thumb carpometacarpal joint, 1958, 1967, 1968f–1969f
ASA (acetylsalicylic acid), 421
Asian blepharoplasty
anatomy, 127, 127f–128f

complications, 131
definition, 127
exposure of fusion, 129, 129f
merits and demerits, 130b
outcomes, 130
patient history and physical findings, 127–128
postoperative care, 130
skin-aponeurosis fixation technique, 129, 129f
skin-tarsus fixation technique, 130, 130f
surgical management, 128–129
anesthesia, 129
approach, 129
positioning, 129
preoperative planning, 128–129, 129f
ASIS (anterior superior iliac spine), 2137, 2140, 2355, 2358, 2518
Aspiration, 2895
Aspirin, 140–141, 2444
Asymmetric transverse distraction osteogenesis, 486–487, 487f
Atherosclerosis, 2523
Atrophic nonunion, 2506, 2509
Atrophic surgical scarring, 55
Atrophic/edentulous mandible fractures, 913
Aural atresia, 2816f
Auricular cartilage, 316–317, 316f
Auricular prosthesis implants, 3087, 3088f
Auriculotemporal nerve
anatomy, 966, 966f
scalp reconstruction with rotation flaps, 980
Autogenous bone grafts, 510
Autogenous rib graft
allograft materials, 510
alloplastic materials, 509
autogenous bone grafts, 510

bone substitutes, 510
bony defect, 511
complications, 514
cranial defect exposure, 511
cranioplasty technique, 513
definition, 509
endochondral and intramembranous ossification, 509, 509f–510f
floating ribs, 509
imaging, 510
merits and demerits, 511b
nonoperative management, 510
outcomes, 514
pathogenesis, 509
patient history and physical findings, 510
postoperative care, 514
rib harvest, 512, 512f
scalp closure, 513
split rib technique, 513, 513f
surgical management
approach, 511
patient positioning, 511, 511f
preoperative planning, 510–511
Autograft bone, 2355
Autograft cancellous bone graft
Autologous fat, 165
Autologous gluteal augmentation flap, 1615–1617, 1616f–1617f
Autospreader flaps, narrow midvault, 302, 302f
Avulsed flaps with impaired venous outflow, 2429
Axilla, keystone flap reconstruction, 2541, 2542f
Axillary hyperhidrosis
anatomy, 1749, 1749f
complications, 1752
definition, 1749

differential diagnosis, 1750
imaging/diagnosis, 1750, 1750f
natural history, 1749
nonoperative management, 1750
outcomes, 1752
pathogenesis, 1749
patient history and physical findings, 1749–1750
postoperative care, 1752
surgical management
positioning, 1750, 1751f
preoperative planning, 1750, 1750f
Axonotmesis, 2410, 2451
B
Babysitter nerves
complications, 1285
cross face nerve graft, 1282–1283, 1283f–1284f
definition, 1277
exposure, 1280–1281, 1280f–1281f
flowchart, 1279, 1279f
mandibular branch, 1277f, 1278
merits and demerits, 1280b
motor nerve to masseter, 1281–1282, 1282f
outcomes, 1285
pathogenesis, 1278
patient history and physical findings, 1278
postoperative care, 1284–1285
superficial muscle fibers, 1277–1278, 1277f
surgical management
approach, 1280
patient positioning, 1279–1280, 1279f
preoperative planning, 1279

temporal branch, 1277f, 1278
zygomatic division, 1277f, 1278
Bacitracin ointment, 3072
Back reconstruction, keystone flaps for, 1746, 1746f
Bacterial osteomyelitis, 2509
Bactroban, 203
BALs (basal aesthetic lines), 334, 373
Banner flaps
aesthetic subunits, 1146, 1147f
complications, 1153
definition, 1146
merits and demerits, 1148b
outcomes, 1152–1153
patient history and physical findings, 1146–1147
postoperative care, 1152
surgical management
approach, 1147
patient positioning, 1147
preoperative planning, 1147
technique, 1148, 1148f
Barrel-stave technique, 456
Basal aesthetic lines (BALs), 334, 373
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC)
anatomy, 2303
complications, 2308
defect after Mohs resection, 1055, 1056f
definition, 2303
differential diagnosis, 2304
direct closure and lateral cantholysis, 1078
imaging, 2304
lower eyelid defects, 1085, 1085f, 1086f
merits and demerits, 2307b
nasolabial flap, 1070

natural history, 2303
nonoperative management, 2304–2305
nostril sill and upper lip defect after excision, 1189f–1190f
outcomes, 2308
pathogenesis, 2303
patient history and physical findings, 1084, 2303, 2304f
postoperative care, 2308
surgical management, 2305
Basilic vein, 2123
BCC. See Basal cell carcinoma (BCC)
Beare-Stevenson syndrome, 616
Bell phenomenon, 1094–1095
Belotero Balance, 27
Below-knee amputation, 2549
Below-knee popliteal exposure, 2403, 2404f
Belt lipectomy. See Lower body lift
Benign bone tumors, 2342
Benign tumors, 2421
Bennett fracture
anatomy, 1810
closed reduction and pinning, 1812
complications, 1815
definition, 1810
Gedda classification for, 1810
imaging, 1811
merits and demerits, 1814b
natural history, 1810
open reduction and internal fixation, 1813
outcomes, 1815
pathogenesis, 1810
patient history and physical findings, 1810–1811
plain radiographs, 1810f
postoperative care, 1814–1815

surgical management, 1811
patient positioning, 1811
preoperative planning in, 1811
Wagner approach, 1811
Bennett or Hohmann retractors, 2461
Bergland Scale Score, 649
Beta-blocker, 2406
Beta-blockers, 2276
Betadine, 861
Bicarbonate, 3077
Biceps and brachialis lengthening, 2193–2194, 2193f–2194f
Biceps femoris tendon, 2413
Biceps to triceps transfer, 2191–2192, 2192f
Bicompartmental knee arthroplasty, 2470f
Bicoronal synostosis
craniosynostosis, 531
natural history, 445
Bier block anesthesia, 1979, 1979f
Bilateral advancement flap, 1519, 1519f–1520f
Bilateral cleft lip adhesion, 2633–2634
Bilateral cleft lip and palate (BLCP), 567, 567f
Bilateral cleft lip, nasal deformity, 2715t
Bilateral cleft lip repair
anatomy, 2637
definition, 2637
diagnosis, 2638
imaging, 2638
incisions, 2640, 2640f–2641f
lip fusion, 2637
markings, 2639, 2639f
merits and demerits, 2642b
nonoperative management, 2638, 2638f
outcomes, 2642–2643

pathogenesis, 2637
patient history and physical findings, 2637, 2637f
postoperative care, 2642
reconstruction, 2640–2641
surgical management, 2638
patient position, 2638, 2639f
variations in technique, 2641, 2642f
Bilateral complete cleft palate, two-flap palatoplasty, 2688, 2688f
Bilateral coronal synostosis
anatomy, 434
definition, 434
patient history and physical findings, 435
techniques, 442
Bilateral maxillomandibular fixation screws, 585–586, 586f
Bilateral nasal bone deviation, 326–327, 327f
Bilateral sagittal split osteotomy (BSSO), for mandibular deficiency
anatomy, 697–698
angle occlusal classification, 697–698
completion process, 704
complications, 705
Dal Pont modification, 697
definition, 697
differential diagnosis, 698
exposure, 700, 700f–701f
Hunsuck modification, 697
imaging studies, 698
medial ramus, 701, 701f–702f
merits and demerits, 700b
nonoperative management, 699
occlusal correction and maxillomandibular fixation, 702,
702f–703f
outcomes, 705
pathogenesis, 698

patient history and physical findings, 698
postoperative care, 705
rigid fixation, 703
surgical management, 699–705
Bilateral temporalis muscles, 461
Bilateral transverse L-shaped maxillary osteotomy, 564, 565f
Bilateral V-Y gluteal myocutaneous flaps, 2788, 2788f
Bilobed flap(s), 2827, 2827f–2828f
aesthetic subunits, 1146, 1147f
complications, 1153
definition, 1146
merits and demerits, 1148b
outcomes, 1152–1153
patient history and physical findings, 1146–1147
postoperative care, 1152
surgical management
approach, 1147
patient positioning, 1147
preoperative planning, 1147
technique, 1148–1149, 1149f
Bioabsorbable composites, 2469
Biobrane double-layer dressing, 2769
Bipolar diathermy, 2679
Blast injuries, 2412
Bleeding, 2674, 2689
NLDO, 2875
palatal fistula, 2704
velopharyngeal insufficiency, 2713
Blepharochalasis, 138
Blepharoplasty
Asian
anatomy, 127, 127f–128f
complications, 131

definition, 127
exposure of fusion, 129, 129f
merits and demerits, 130b
outcomes, 130
patient history and physical findings, 127–128
postoperative care, 130
skin-aponeurosis fixation technique, 129, 129f
skin-tarsus fixation technique, 130, 130f
surgical management, 128–129
lower (see Lower blepharoplasty)
upper (see Upper blepharoplasty)
Blepharoptosis, 114, 2849
Blindness, 837
Blood supply, lip, 1068, 1069f
Blunt and penetrating traumas, 780
Blunt cannula injection, 34
Blunt dissection
condyle fractures, 919
orbital floor blow-out fractures, 812, 812f
Blunt subgaleal dissection, medial orbit wall fractures, 835
Blunt trauma, pediatric midface fractures, 950
BMAC (bone marrow aspirate concentration), 2357, 2360–2361
BMP-2, 2474
Body fractures, open treatment of, 911
BO-Fort procedure, 490
Boies elevator, 860, 860f
Bolster sutures
constricted ear, 2830, 2830f
cryptotia, 2834
prominent ears, 2839, 2839f
Stahl ear, 2824, 2824f
Bone, 1710–1711, 1710f
Bone canthopexy

anatomy, 185, 185f–186f
closure, 189
complications, 189
definition, 185
drill holes and positioning of, 187–189
figure-of-8 suture fixation of, 187, 187f
imaging, 186
operative approach, 186, 187f
outcomes, 189
pathogenesis, 186
patient history and physical findings, 186
postoperative care, 189
preoperative preparation, 186
surgical management, 186
Bone fixation, 2151, 2151f
Bone flap creation approach, 1811-1885
4 + 5 extensor compartmental artery vascularized bone flap,
1881–1882, 1882f
1,2-intercompartmental supraretinacular artery vascularized bone
flap, 1882–1883, 1883f
medial femoral condyle microvascular flap, 1883–1885, 1884f
superficial palmar branch of radial artery vascularized bone flap,
1883, 1883f
Bone grafting, for foot and ankle
anatomy, 2355
bone marrow aspirate concentrate, 2360–2361, 2361f
calcaneal autograft harvest, 2360, 2360f
complications, 2362
concentrated synthetic growth factors, 2361
definition, 2355
differential diagnosis, 2356
iliac crest autograft harvest, 2358, 2358f–2359f
iliac crest autograft harvest (cancellous), 2359, 2359f

imaging, 2356
indications, 2355
merits and demerits, 2361b
natural history, 2356
nonoperative management, 2356
outcomes, 2362
pathogenesis, 2356
patient history and physical findings, 2356
postoperative care, 2362
proximal tibia autograft harvest, 2359, 2360f
surgical management, 2357–2358
approach, 2357–2358
patient positioning, 2357, 2358f
preoperative planning, 2357
Bone harvest, 1041–1043, 1042f–1043f
Bone marrow aspiration
cement spacer placement and internal fixation, 2475–2476, 2475f
completion of reaming, 2478
graft placement, 2478, 2479f
guidewire insertion, 2476–2477, 2477f
harvesting bone marrow, 2478, 2479f
reaming graft material, 2477–2478, 2478f
RIA preparation, 2477, 2477f
soft tissue coverage and monitoring, 2476, 2476f
spacer removal and bone preparation, 2476, 2476f
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP-2), 2361
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), 2357
alveolar cleft defects
anatomy, 663, 663f–664f
gingivoperiosteoplasty with BMP-2, 666
imaging studies, 664
merits and demerits, 666b
natural history, 664

outcomes, 668
patient history and physical findings, 664
postoperative care, 668
secondary, 666
surgical management, 664, 665f
complications, 668–670
cranial vault defects
anatomy, 663
imaging studies, 664
merits and demerits, 666b
natural history, 664
outcomes, 668
patient history and physical findings, 664
postoperative care, 668
surgical management, 665, 665f
surgical technique, 667
mandibular defects
anatomy, 663
imaging studies, 664
merits and demerits, 666b
natural history, 664
outcomes, 668
patient history and physical findings, 664
postoperative care, 668
surgical management, 665, 665f
surgical technique, 667
rare tessier clefts
anatomy, 663
imaging studies, 664
natural history, 664
outcomes, 668
patient history and physical findings, 664
surgical management, 665

surgical technique, 667, 669f
Bone reconstruction, of knee
anatomy, 2473
complication, 2481
definition, 2473
imaging, 2473–2474, 2474f
induced membrane with intramedullary autogenous bone grafting
cement spacer placement and internal fixation, 2475–2476,
2475f
completion of reaming, 2478
graft placement, 2478, 2479f
harvesting bone marrow, 2478, 2479f
inserting guidewire, 2476–2477, 2477f
reaming graft material, 2477–2478, 2478f
RIA preparation, 2477, 2477f
soft tissue coverage and monitoring, 2476, 2476f
spacer removal and bone preparation, 2476, 2476f
merits and demerits, 2480b, 2480f
natural history, 2473
outcomes, 2480–2481
pathogenesis, 2473
patient history and physical findings, 2473
postoperative care, 2480, 2480f
surgical management, 2474f
approach, 2475
patient positioning, 2475
preoperative planning, 2474–2475, 2475f
Bone resorption, 391
Bone transposition
anteroposterior transpositions, 458, 458f
inverse transpositions, 457, 457f
Bone tumors
ankle and foot of

anatomy, 2342
benign bone tumor of the talus, 2343, 2343f
complications, 2348
differential diagnosis, 2342
imaging, 2342
malignant bone tumors, 2343–2347, 2344f, 2346f, 2347f
merits and demerits, 2343b
nonoperative management, 2342
outcomes, 2348
patient history, 2342
physical findings, 2342
postoperative care, 2347–2348
surgical management, 2342
definition, 2342
of femur
anatomy, 2502
complications, 2505
definition, 2502
differential diagnosis for, 2502
femur resection and allograft reconstruction, 2503, 2504f
functional outcomes, 2505
imaging, 2502, 2503f
merits and demerits, 2504b
natural history, 2502
oncological outcomes, 2505
pathogenesis, 2502
patient history and physical findings, 2502
postoperative care, 2505
surgical management, 2502–2503
of knee
anatomy, 2460
complications, 2464
definition, 2460

differential diagnosis for, 2460
distal femur resection, 2461, 2461f
endoprosthetic reconstruction, 2461, 2461f
endoprosthetic reconstruction of proximal tibia, 2463, 2463f
estimated incidence of 3260, 2460
imaging, 2460
merits and demerits, 2464b
natural history, 2460
outcomes, 2464
pathogenesis, 2460
patient history and physical findings, 2460
postoperative care, 2464
reconstruction, 2462, 2462f
surgical management, 2460–2461
of lower leg
anatomy, 2423, 2423f
complications, 2426
definition, 2423
diaphyseal tibia tumor resection and reconstruction, 2424
differential diagnosis for, 2423
functional outcomes, 2426
imaging, 2423
merits and demerits, 2425b
natural history, 2423
oncological outcomes, 2426
pathogenesis, 2423
patient history, 2423
physical findings, 2423
postoperative care, 2426
surgical management, 2423–2424, 2424f
primary, 2342
Bone tunnels creation, 2495, 2495f
Bone-anchored hearing aid (BAHA), 2816

Bony abscess, 2466
Bony damage, 2468
Bony nasal pyramid and septum, reduction, 855, 855f
Bony reconstruction of foot and ankle. See Bone grafting, for foot
and ankle
Botox, 3, 238
Bottom-to-top approach, 938–939, 938f
Bottom-to-top-to-middle approach, 940
Botulinum toxin injection
depressor anguli oris, 15
anatomy, 14
approach, 15
complications, 16
definition, 14
imaging, 15
merits and demerits, 15b
outcomes, 15–16
patient history and physical findings, 14–15
positioning, 15
postoperative care, 15
preoperative planning, 15
surgical management, 15
to forehead
anatomy, 5, 5f
complications, 6
definition, 5
merits and demerits, 6b
nonoperative management, 5
outcome, 6, 6f
patient history and physical findings, 5
postoperative care, 6
to glabellar region
anatomy, 2

complications, 4
definition, 2
merits and demerits, 4b
outcomes, 4
patient history and physical findings, 3
postoperative care, 4
surgical management, 3, 4b
gummy smile, 10
anatomy, 9, 9f
approach, 9
complications, 10
definition, 9
merits and demerits, 10b
nonoperative management, 9
outcome, 10, 10f
patient history and physical findings, 9
positioning, 9
postoperative care, 10
perioral rhytids
anatomy, 11, 11f
complications, 13
definition, 11
marionette lines, 12
merits and demerits, 13b
outcomes, 13, 13f
pathogenesis, 11
patient history and physical findings, 11
postprocedural care, 13
vertical rhytids, 12
to platysma bands, 18, 18f
anatomy, 17, 17f
complications, 19
definition, 17

merits and demerits, 18b
outcomes, 19, 19f
pathogenesis, 17
patient history and physical findings, 17
postprocedural care, 19
preparation, 17
to soften crow’s feet
anatomy, 7
complications, 8
definition, 7, 7f
imaging, 7
merits and demerits, 8b
outcomes, 8
patient history and physical findings, 7
positioning, 7
postoperative care, 8
preoperative planning, 7
Bouchard nodes, on PIPJs, 1956, 1957f
Boutonniere deformities
finger, 1938, 1938f
ligament reconstruction to correct, 1948
Nalebuff classification of, 1940, 1941t
reconstructive surgery for, 1940
thumb, 1938
Bouvier test, median and ulnar nerve injuries, 2034
Box and U-shaped osteotomies
anatomy, 536, 536f
canthal and nasal reconstruction, 540
closure, 540
complications, 541
cranial, 538, 539f
definition, 536
facial, 538, 539f

fixation, 540, 540f
imaging studies, 536
incision and exposure, 538, 538f
merits and demerits, 538b
orbital, 538, 539f
outcomes, 541, 541f
pathogenesis, 536
patient history and physical findings, 536
postoperative care, 541
surgical management
patient positioning, 537
preoperative planning, 537, 537f
translocation, 539
Brachioradialis (BR), 2001b, 2001f, 2002f, 2114
to extensor carpi radialis brevis tendon transfer, 2198,
2198f–2199f
to flexor pollicis longus transfer, 2016, 2017f, 2207–2208, 2208f
Bradycardia, 957
Branchial cleft sinuses and cysts
anatomy, 2898, 2898f, 2900b
complications, 2904
definition, 2898
differential diagnosis, 2900
endoscopic management, 2902, 2903f
excision, 2903
imaging, 2899, 2900f
merits and demerits, 2904b
nonoperative management, 2900
outcomes, 2904
pathogenesis, 2898
patient history and physical findings, 2898–2899
postoperative care, 2904
surgical management

approach, 2900
patient position, 2900
preoperative planning, 2900
Branchio-oto-renal syndrome, 2899
Breast amputation, with free nipple grafting
markings, 1358, 1358f
nipple grafting, 1359, 1359f
tissue excision, 1358–1359, 1359f
Breast augmentation
anatomy, 1298–1300
chest wall prominence, 1302
complications, 1312–1313
deep pectoralis fascia, 1300
definition, 1297–1298
dual plane (see Dual plane augmentation)
female to male transition (see Transgender breast surgery)
with free nipple grafts, 1328
imaging, 1302
merits and demerits, 1312b
outcomes, 1312
patient history and physical findings, 1300–1302, 1301f
physical assessment, 1301–1302
Pinch test, 1301, 1301f
postoperative care, 1312
round (see Round implants)
subfascial implant (see Subfascial implant)
subglandular implant (see Subglandular implant)
submuscular implant (see Submuscular implant)
surgical management
approach, 1304, 1305f
incision placement, 1302–1303, 1304f
patient positioning, 1304, 1304f
pocket control, 1304

preoperative planning, 1302–1304
transaxillary (see Transaxillary breast augmentation)
Breast cancer related upper limb lymphedema. See Lymphedema
microsurgery
Breast conservation therapy (BCT), 1367
Breast contractures
definition, 2783
merits and demerits, 2784b
natural history, 2783
pathogenesis, 2783
patient history and physical findings, 2783
postoperative care, 2784
surgical management, 2783
approach, 2783, 2783f, 2784f
patient position, 2783
preoperative planning, 2783
Breast reconstruction
abdominal-based flaps (see Abdominal-based flaps, for breast
reconstruction)
with local tissue rearrangement (see Partial mastectomy, local
tissue rearrangement)
superior gluteal artery perforator flap (see Superior gluteal artery
perforator (SGAP) flap)
transverse upper gracilis flap (see Transverse upper gracilis (TUG)
flap)
Breast reduction with free nipple graft
anatomy, 1350
complications, 1353, 1354f
definition, 1350
imaging, 1350
merits and demerits, 1351b, 1352b
outcomes, 1353
patient history and physical findings, 1350

postoperative care, 1353
surgical management
approach, 1351
patient positioning, 1350
preoperative planning, 1350
wise pattern skin excision markings, 1351, 1351f
Brow, injectable fillers in, 20–22
Brow lifting
anatomy, 69–70, 69f
motor nerves, 70
sensory nerves, 70
anterior hairline brow lift, 74
approach, 72
brow lowering procedure, 75, 75f
coronal brow lift, 72–74, 73f
definition, 69
merits and demerits, 76b
nonoperative management, 71
outcomes, 76
pathogenesis, 70–71, 71f
patient history and physical findings, 71
positioning, 72
postoperative care, 76
surgical management, 71–72, 71f
Brow lowering procedure, 75, 75f
Buccal branches, skin-only face and neck lifting, 196
Buccal fat pad
anatomy, 254, 254f
complications, 256
definition, 254
excision techniques, 255b, 255f
imaging, 254
merits and demerits, 256b

outcomes, 256, 256f
patient history and physical findings, 254
postoperative care, 256
surgical management, 254
Buccal fat pad flap, 1221
Buccal fat pad pseudoherniation, 254
Buccal fat transposition flap, 1220
Buccal mucosa graft, for redo hypospadias repair, 3048–3049
Buccal mucosal defects
acellular dermal matrix, 1221
anatomic borders, 1219, 1219f
anterolateral thigh fasciocutaneous flap, 1225–1226, 1225f–1226f
autogenous grafts, 1221
buccal fat pad flap, 1220–1221
buccal space, 1219
complications, 1227
cutaneous paddles of chimeric flaps, 1226
definition, 1219
external to internal layers, 1219, 1219f
FAMM flap, 1222–1223, 1223f
masseteric (or submasseteric) space, 1220
merits and demerits, 1221b
outcomes, 1227
pathogenesis, 1220
patient history and physical findings, 1220
pectoralis major myocutaneous flap, 1223
platysmal myocutaneous island flap, 1222
postoperative care, 1227
Pterygomandibular space, 1219
radial forearm fasciocutaneous free flap, 1224, 1224f
submental island flap, 1221–1222, 1222f
surgical management
approach, 1220–1221

patient positioning, 1220
preoperative planning, 1220
Buccal myomucosal flap, 2700–2701, 2700f
Buccal nerve, anatomy of, 966, 966f
Buccal sulcus
incision, 2631, 2633
of Le Fort I fractures, 890
Bunnell Transfer, 2013–2015, 2014f
Bupivacaine, 2329
emergency room anesthesia, 3077
furlow palatoplasty, 2664
Buried sutures technique, 2861, 2861f
Burn injury
anatomy, 2805
complications, 2809
definition, 2805
imaging, 2806
merits and demerits, 2808b
natural history, 2805–2806
outcomes, 2809
pathogenesis, 2805
patient history and physical findings, 2806
postoperative care, 2809
surgical management, 2806
Burn scar contractures, 2767, 2767f
Burned hand reconstruction
anatomy, 2772
complications, 2776
contracture release with full-thickness skin grafting, 2774–2775,
2775f
definition, 2772
imaging, 2772
merits and demerits, 2775b

natural history, 2772
pathogenesis, 2772
patient history and physical findings, 2772
postoperative care, 2776
surgical management, 2772–2773
patient position, 2773
preoperative planning, 2773
Burow flap advancement, 1056, 1056f–1057f
Buttock lift
anatomy, 1612, 1613f
with autologous gluteal augmentation, 1615–1617, 1616f–1617f
complications, 1618
definition, 1612
merits and demerits, 1617b
pathogenesis, 1612
patient history and physical findings, 1612
postoperative care, 1617
surgical management
approach, 1614
patient position, 1613–1614, 1614f
preoperative planning, 1612–1613
Byars flaps, 3047

C
C flap
inset of, 2613
on medial lip element, 2608–2609, 2608f–2609f
Calcaneal autograft harvest, 2360, 2360f
Calcaneus, 2352f
Calcium sulfate, 2469
Calvarial reconstruction
with split calvarial grafts
anatomy, 997
complications, 1000
definition, 997
ex vivo, 998, 998f
imaging studies, 997
merits and demerits, 998b
outcomes, 1000
patient history and physical findings, 997
postoperative care, 1000
in situ, 999, 999f
surgical management, 997–998
thin split-thickness in situ, 999
with split rib grafts
complications, 996
definition, 994
harvest site and completion, 995, 996f
imaging studies, 994
merits and demerits, 995b
outcomes, 996
patient history and physical findings, 994
postoperative care, 996
rib graft harvest, 995, 995f

rib/thoracic cage, 994, 994f
surgical management, 994
Calvarium, alloplastic reconstruction
anatomy, 519
complications, 522
definition, 519
imaging studies, 519–520, 520f
intraoperative technique, 520, 521f
left parietal skull defect, 519, 520f
merits and demerits, 520b
natural history, 519
outcomes, 522
pathogenesis, 519
patient history and physical findings, 519
postoperative care, 522
resected calvarial tumor specimen, 519, 519f
surgical management
patient positioning, 520
preoperative planning, 520
CAM boots, 2372
Camitz Transfer, 2013, 2014f
Camouflage corrections, 887b
Canalicular injury, 2875
Canaliculi, lacrimal system, 830f, 831
Cancellous fragments, 2468
Cancerous lesions, 2365
Cannula, 21
Cannula use, 2811
Canthal and nasal reconstruction, 540
Canthal tilt, 158
Canthopexy, 152, 154
anatomy, 2863, 2863f
complications, 2868

definition, 2863
imaging, 2864
lateral canthal manipulation with
anatomy, 157, 158f–159f
complications, 161
definition, 157
inferior retinacular lateral canthopexy/canthoplasty, 159–160,
160f
merits and demerits, 160b
outcomes, 160, 161f
pathogenesis, 157–158
patient history and physical findings, 158–159
postoperative care, 160
merits and demerits, 2868b
natural history, 2863
nonoperative management, 2864
outcomes, 2868
pathogenesis, 2863
patient history and physical findings, 2863–2864
postoperative care, 2868
surgical management, 2864–2868
approach, 2864–2868
patient position, 2864
preoperative planning, 2864
Canthoplasty
lateral canthal manipulation with
anatomy, 157, 158f–159f
complications, 161
definition, 157
inferior retinacular lateral canthopexy/canthoplasty, 159–160,
160f
outcomes, 160, 161f
pathogenesis, 157–158

patient history and physical findings, 158–159
pearls and pitfalls, 160b
postoperative care, 160
lateral tarsal strip
anatomy, 1103
complications
definition, 1103
imaging, 1104
markings and anesthesia, 1103f, 1105
merits and demerits, 1105b
natural history, 1104
nonoperative management, 1104
outcomes, 1107
pathogenesis, 1103–1104
patient history and physical findings, 1104
patient positioning, 1105–1106
postoperative care, 1107
preoperative planning, 1105
removal of, 1103f–1104f, 1105–1106
strip placement, 1107
Canthotomy, 1081, 1081f–1082f
Capanna method, 2512, 2514–2515, 2514f
Capanna technique, 2424
Caprini scale, 2444
Capsular contracture, 390
Capsulotomies, 1740
Caput ulna, 1933, 1933f–1934f
Carbon dioxide lasers, 2800
Cardiovascular system, conjoined twins, 3095
Carpal tunnel release, 1762–1763, 1763f
anatomy, 1977, 1978f
complications, 1985
definition, 1977

diagnostic studies, 1979
differential diagnosis, 1979
endoscopic carpal tunnel release, 1981–1983, 1981f, 1982f, 1983f
hypothenar fat flap, 1984, 1984f
imaging, 1979
merits and demerits, 1985b
nonoperative management, 1979
open carpal tunnel release, 1980, 1981f
outcomes, 1985
pathogenesis, 1977
patient history and physical findings, 1977
postoperative care, 1985
surgical management, 1979–1980
approach, 1980, 1980f
patient positioning, 1979
preoperative planning, 1979, 1979f
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), 1930, 1933, 1936, 1977, 1979,
1984–1985
Carpometacarpal (CMC) joint fracture-dislocations
anatomy
general, 1796
ligamentous, 1796, 1796f
skeleton, 1796
closed reduction and percutaneous pinning, 1798, 1798f–1799f
complication, 1800
definition, 1796
differential diagnosis, 1797
imaging, 1797, 1797f
merits and demerits, 1800b
natural history, 1797
nonoperative management, 1797
open reduction and internal fixation, 1799, 1800f
outcomes, 1800

pathogenesis, 1796–1797
patient history and physical findings, 1797
postoperative care, 1800
surgical management, 1797–1798
approach, 1798
patient positioning, 1798
Carroll-Girard screw, 955
Cartilage grafts, 314, 314f
Cartilage turnover and rotation methods, Stahl ear, 2821
Cartilaginous wedge resections
Cat bites, 3075
Caudal septal reduction, 335, 335f
Caudal septum, 2632f
Causalgia, 1930
Cefazolin, 2466
Cement spacer placement, 2475–2476, 2475f
Central nervous system, conjoined twins, 3096
Central wedge excision, 549
Centrifugation, 180–181, 180f
Cephalic vein, 2114
Cephalosporins, 2466
Cerebrospinal fluid leakage, 831
Cervical branches, 196
Cervical lipectomy, 245–246, 245f
Cervical nerves, 966, 966f
Champy technique, 941
Charles procedure, 2568–2569, 2569f. See also Fasciocutaneous
debulking of extremity lymphedema
Cheek reconstruction
with laterally based cervicofacial flap
arterial blood supply, 1103, 1103f–1104f
complications, 1107
deep-plane elevation or tissue expansion, 1103

definition, 1103, 1103f
flap elevation, 1105, 1105f
imaging studies, 1104
markings, 1105, 1105f
merits and demerits, 1105b
outcomes, 1107, 1107f–1108f
patient history and physical findings, 1103–1104
postoperative care, 1107
reconstructive zones, 1103
surgical management, 1104
medially based cervicofacial flap
arterial blood supply, 1103, 1103f–1104f
complications, 1107
deep-plane elevation or tissue expansion, 1103
definition, 1103, 1103f
desmoplastic melanoma, 1105, 1106f
dissection, 1105, 1106f
dog-ear excision, in inferomedial portion, 1106, 1106f
imaging studies, 1104
markings, 1105, 1106f
merits and demerits, 1105b
outcomes, 1107, 1107f–1108f
patient history and physical findings, 1103–1104
postoperative care, 1107
reconstructive zones, 1103
surgical management, 1104
radial forearm flap
advantage, 1116
anatomy, 1116, 1117f
complications, 1121
definition, 1116
flap design, 1118, 1118f
flap dissection, 1118, 1118f

flap inset, 1119–1120, 1120f
imaging, 1116
merits and demerits, 1118b
outcomes, 1121
patient history, 1116
physical examination, 1116
postoperative care, 1121
subfascial dissection, 1119, 1119f
surgical management, 1117
skin grafts
arterial and venous anatomy, 1123f
buccomandibular, 1122, 1122f
definition, 1122
with full-thickness skin graft, 1125, 1125f
lymphatic drainage, 1122
merits and demerits, 1125b
nonoperative management, 1124
outcomes, 1126–1127
patch appearance, 1126
patient history and physical findings, 1122–1124
postoperative care, 1126
preauricular, 1122, 1122f
with split-thickness skin graft, 1126, 1127f–1128f
suborbital, 1122, 1122f
surgical management, 1124
tissue expansion
anatomy, 1109
complications, 1115
definition, 1109
direct expansion and closure, 1110
expanded cervicofacial flap, 1110, 1112, 1113f
expanded flap elevation and inset, 1111, 1111f–1112f
flap incisions and tissue transposition, 1110

incision placement, 1110
insertion, 1111
merits and demerits, 1111b
neck expansion, 1113, 1113f
outcomes, 1114, 1114f
patient history and physical findings, 1109
port placement, 1110
postoperative care, 1114
size, shape, and number, 1110
surgical management, 1109–1110
Cheilion, 2729
Chemical peels, 60
Chemosis, 147, 156
Chemotherapy, 2456, 2497
Cheng’s grading and management for lymphedema, 1506b
Chest wall deformity, 996
Chest wall incision, 996
Chest wall reconstruction
latissimus dorsi flap for
anatomy, 1543, 1543f
axillary tunnel dissection, 1545
complications, 1546
definition, 1543
flap elevation, 1544–1545, 1545f
merits and demerits, 1545b
outcomes, 1546
patient history and physical findings, 1543–1544
postoperative care, 1546
surgical management, 1544
pectoralis flap for
anatomy, 1514–1515, 1514f–1515f
complications, 1521
definition, 1514

differential diagnosis, 1516
imaging, 1516
merits and demerits, 1517b
natural history, 1515–1516
nonoperative management, 1516
pathogenesis, 1515
patient history and physical findings, 1516, 1517f
postoperative care, 1521
surgical management, 1516–1517
serratus anterior flap for
anatomy, 1547, 1548f–1551f
complications, 1555
definition, 1547
flap harvest, 1553–1554, 1553f–1554f
imaging, 1549
intrathoracic flap insetting, 1554, 1554f
merits and demerits, 1554b
outcomes, 1555
pathogenesis, 1547
patient history and physical findings, 1547–1549
postoperative care, 1554–1555
surgical management, 1549–1551
Chest wound closure, microtia, auricular reconstruction for, 2818
Chin augmentation
anatomy, 386, 387f–388f
complications, 390–391
definition, 386, 388b
external (submental) approach, 388–389, 388f, 389f
imaging, 387
implant selection, 387
intraoral approach, 390
merits and demerits, 390b
outcomes, 390, 391f

pathogenesis, 386
patient history and physical findings, 386–387
postoperative care, 390
surgical management, 387
Chin deformities
osseous genioplasty
anatomy, 411
complications, 414–415
definition, 411
imaging, 412
merits and demerits, 413b
outcomes, 414, 414f–415f
patient history and physical findings, 411
postoperative care, 414
surgical management, 412–415
techniques, 412–413, 413f
variations, 413
Chin pogonion projection, 411
Chin ptosis, 757, 757f
Chin reduction
anatomy, 406
complications, 410
definition, 406
genioplasty, 408–409, 408f, 409f
imaging, 406
mandible setback/chin setback, 407
mandibuloplasty, 407–408, 408f
merits and demerits, 410b
outcomes, 410
patient history and physical findings, 406
postoperative care, 410
surgical management, 406–407
approach, 407

positioning, 407
preoperative planning, 407
Chlorhexidine mouthwash, 892
Chloroprocaine, 2329
Chondritis, 2835, 2840, 3083
Chondroblastoma, 2423
Chondrosarcoma, 2460
Chopart amputation, 2546
Chordee correction
bridging of urethral plate defect, 3047, 3047f–3048f
corporal body grafting, 3047, 3047f
deep transverse incisions of tunica albuginea, 3046
dorsal plication, 3044, 3044f
urethra and glanuloplasty tubularization, 3048
urethral plate division, 3046
Chronic infection, 2365, 2506
Chronic osteomyelitis, 2369f, 2433, 2469
Chronic periprosthetic infection, 2470f
Chronic right posterior ankle wound
Chronic vascular disease, 2365
Chronic wounds, 980, 2366, 2429
Cicatricial alopecias, 417, 428
Cicatricial ectropion, 815
Cierny-Mader classification system, 2466
Circular excision and purse-string closure, 2761–2762, 2761f
Circumferential body lift. See Lower body lift
Circumferential orbital osteotomies, 548, 548f
Circumflex scapular artery (CSA), 1037
Circumflex scapular pedicle (CSP), 687, 687f
Circumflex scapular system, 1038
Circumflex subscapular artery (CSA), 1037, 1037f
Circum-mandibular wires, 959–962, 961f
Circumvertical skin reduction, 2989, 2989f

“Classic” helix-only defect, 1130, 1130f
Classic V-Y flap, 1183–1184, 1184f
Claudication, 2400
Claw deformity of digits, 2020–2022
Claw hand deformity, 2034, 2038f–2039f
Clear cell sarcoma, 2421
ClearVue boards, 426
Cleft alveolus deformity, 656, 657f–658f
Cleft lip
anatomy, 2596
complications, 2605
definition, 2596
differential diagnosis, 2596
dissection
lateral nasolabial element, 2603
medial lip element, 2602, 2602f
nasal structures, 2602–2603
etiology, 2596
lateral lip element elevation, 2599, 2600f
lateral nasolabial element
matching nasolabial lengths, 2600–2602, 2602f
nasal sill, 2600, 2601f
Nordhoff point, 2600, 2601f
lip closure
cutaneous approximation, 2604
muscle repair, 2603–2604, 2603f
medial nasolabial element
measurements and interpositional triangle, 2598, 2599f
vermilion, Cupid’s bow, and nose, 2597–2598, 2598f
merits and demerits, 2604b
outcomes, 2605, 2605f
pathogenesis, 2596
patient history and physical findings, 2596

postoperative care, 2605
surgical management, 2596–2597
approach, 2597
patient position, 2597
preoperative planning, 2597
suture techniques, 2604
Cleft lip adhesion
bilateral, 2633–2634
unilateral
completion, 2633, 2633f
incision and dissection, 2631, 2632f
markings, 2631, 2631f
suturing, 2631–2633, 2632f
Cleft lip repair. See Bilateral cleft lip repair
Cleft lip/nose deformity. See Salyer unilateral cleft lip/nose repair
Cleft palate repair
Sommerlad palatoplasty (see Sommerlad palatoplasty)
two-flap palatoplasty (see Two-flap palatoplasty)
von Langenbeck palatoplasty (see Von Langenbeck palatoplasty)
Clindamycin, 2336
Clitoral degloving, 3065, 3066f
Clitoral hood, creation of, 3071, 3071f
Clitoral reduction, 3066–3067, 3067f
Clitoris, 3062
Cloacal membrane, 3062
Clonidine, 203
Closed Mallet fracture pinning, 2082
Closed nasal fracture correction
anatomy, 853, 853f
bony nasal pyramid and septum, reduction, 855, 855f
complications, 856
definition, 853
imaging, 854

local anesthetic, administration of, 854, 854f
merits and demerits, 856b
nasal airway assessment and splint application, 855, 856f
nonoperative management, 854
outcomes, 856
pathogenesis, 853
patient history and physical findings, 853
postoperative care, 856
surgical management, 854
approach, 854
positioning, 854
preoperative planning, 854
Closed reduction and pinning
Bennett fracture
distal phalanx fractures, 1776–1777, 1776f–1777f
metacarpal neck fractures, 1788–1789, 1788f–1789f
metacarpal shaft fractures, 1791, 1791f
proximal phalanx fractures, 1782–1783, 1782f–1783f
Rolando fractures
Closed rhinoplasty
anatomy, 263, 263f
complications, 268
controlling tip rotation in
anatomy, 283, 283f
complications, 287
definition, 283
elastic rotation, securing, 285, 285f
imaging, 283
long lateral crus, shortening, 286, 286f
long upper lateral, shortening, 286, 286f
merits and demerits, 286b
natural history, 283
nonoperative management, 283

outcomes, 287, 287f
pathogenesis, 283
patient history and physical findings, 283
postoperative care, 287
projection, 286
surgical management, 283–285, 284f
definition, 263
dorsal resection, 265, 266f, 267f
imaging, 263–264
increasing and decreasing tip projection in
anatomy, 276, 276f
complications, 282
definition, 276, 276f
imaging, 277, 277f
lobule projection, increasing, 279, 279f–280f
lobule projection, reducing, 278, 279f
merits and demerits, 281b
nostril apex projection, increasing, 280, 280f–281f
nostril apex projection, reducing, 278, 278f
outcomes, 282, 282f
pathogenesis, 276
patient history and physical findings, 276–277
postoperative care, 282
surgical management, 277
merits and demerits, 267b
narrow midvault in
anatomy, 269
complications, 275
definition, 269
endonasal access, 272, 272f
imaging, 271
merits and demerits, 274b
outcomes, 274, 275f